China-Myanmar Border Trade and Mining Cooperation: Impact on Global Rare Earth Supply
The China-Myanmar border trade and mining cooperation is a critical component of the global rare earth supply chain. Myanmar has emerged as China's largest external supplier of heavy rare earth elements, contributing approximately 57% of China's total rare earth imports by value in the first half of 2023. The trade relationship is characterized by Myanmar exporting raw materials, such as heavy rare earths, to China, while China exports manufactured goods back to Myanmar. This relationship is structurally asymmetric, reinforcing Myanmar's economic dependency on China. The February 2021 military coup in Myanmar has further complicated the trade dynamics, leading to a redistribution of border control and the emergence of Ethnic Armed Organizations (EAOs) as key players in the trade routes. The United Wa State Army (UWSA) and the Kachin Independence Organization (KIO) now control significant portions of the border trade, influencing the flow of goods and mining operations. 
