At the close of the 19th century, the United States Army was notably small and less powerful compared to other major global forces, with only 39,000 men in 1890, a stark contrast to France's 542,000. The Spanish-American War of 1898, largely fought by temporary volunteers and state militia units, exposed critical shortcomings in the War Department's organization and control. This conflict served as a catalyst for significant reform efforts aimed at modernizing
the U.S. military. Secretary of War Elihu Root, serving from 1899 to 1904, emerged as a pivotal figure in this transformation, advocating for a more businesslike and efficient military structure.
Root's Ambitious Reforms
Elihu Root's vision for the War Department and the Army was comprehensive. He sought to implement a system that included a chief of staff to act as a general manager and a European-style general staff dedicated to strategic planning. His efforts, however, faced initial resistance, particularly from General Nelson A. Miles, who stymied some of his proposals. Despite these challenges, Root pressed forward with his reforms, aiming to bring the U.S. Army into the modern era of military organization and efficiency.
Among Root's notable achievements was the enlargement of the United States Military Academy at West Point, a crucial step in enhancing officer training. He also established the United States Army War College and the General Staff, institutions designed to foster higher military education and strategic thinking. Furthermore, Root revised the procedures for promotions and organized specialized schools for various branches of the service, ensuring that personnel were adequately trained and advanced based on merit and skill. He also introduced the principle of rotating officers between staff and line duties, promoting a broader understanding of military operations.
Impact on New Territories and Subsequent Developments
Beyond internal military restructuring, Secretary Root also addressed the administrative challenges posed by the new territories acquired after the Spanish-American War. He meticulously developed procedures for the transfer of Cuba to Cuban control and drafted the charter of government for the Philippines. Additionally, he eliminated tariffs on goods imported to the United States from Puerto Rico, demonstrating his broad influence on both military and colonial administration.
Root's successor, William Howard Taft, initially reverted to a more traditional alliance between the secretary and bureau chiefs, subordinating the chief of staff to the adjutant general, a powerful position since 1775. During Taft's tenure, President Theodore Roosevelt largely made the major decisions, indicating a temporary shift away from Root's centralized management approach. However, the principles of Root's reforms proved resilient. In 1911, Secretary Henry L. Stimson and his chief of staff, Major General Leonard Wood, revived these reforms. They utilized the general staff to rationalize the Army's organization along modern lines and to supervise its various bureaus, solidifying the long-term impact of Root's foundational work on the U.S. military.
