Pathos, a Greek term, refers to the appeal to the emotions and ideals of an audience, aiming to elicit feelings that already reside within them. It stands as one of the three fundamental modes of persuasion in rhetoric, alongside ethos and logos. Beyond its role in persuasive communication, pathos also finds significant application in philosophy, particularly in Stoicism, where it denotes "complaints of the soul" or an erroneous response to external
impressions. Its influence extends into literature, film, and other narrative arts, where it is employed to cultivate empathy and sadness among audiences.
Pathos in Rhetoric: Aristotle's Framework
In the realm of rhetoric, Aristotle extensively explored pathos as a crucial element of persuasion. He identified it as one of the three artistic modes of persuasion, emphasizing the importance of "awakening emotion (pathos) in the audience so as to induce them to make the judgment desired." Aristotle noted that emotions can alter people's judgments, and as such, they possess specific causes and effects. He stressed that understanding emotions—naming them, describing them, knowing their causes, and how they are excited—is essential for a speaker. To effectively persuade, Aristotle argued that a speaker must also establish credibility through ethos, working in conjunction with pathos.Aristotle meticulously detailed which individual emotions are useful to a speaker, focusing on "whom, toward whom, and why." He asserted that a comprehensive understanding of these three aspects is necessary to evoke anger or any other emotion in an audience. He also suggested arranging emotions in opposition to one another, such as pairing sadness with happiness, to achieve a desired effect. This nuanced approach highlights Aristotle's belief that a rhetor must grasp the entire situation, including the goals and audience, to strategically select and deploy emotions for persuasion. His theory of pathos primarily focuses on the audience's frame of mind, the variability of emotion among individuals, and the speaker's influence on these emotions, with the latter being the ultimate objective.
Methods of Emotional Appeal
Pathos can be achieved through various methods designed to stir emotions and appeal to ideals. One common technique involves using "loaded" words that are likely to provoke a strong reaction, such as "victim" in different contexts. In some instances, pathos can manifest as a "guilt trip," where a speaker attempts to make the audience feel guilty about something. An example might be, "Well, you don't have to visit me, but I just really miss you and haven't seen you in so long." This demonstrates how personal appeals can be used to evoke specific emotional responses.Beyond direct emotional language, pathos can also involve appealing to an audience's imagination and hopes. A speaker might paint a vivid picture of positive future outcomes if their proposed course of action is followed. The mood or tone of a speech, along with the speaker's skill in harnessing the audience's emotional side, are also critical components. Aristotle linked this skill to virtues like courage, wisdom, and generosity, suggesting these qualities in a speaker can enhance their ability to appeal to an audience's emotions. Pathos is most effective when the speaker demonstrates agreement with an underlying value held by the reader or listener, creating a sense of connection and shared understanding.
Philosophical Interpretations and Modern Applications
In philosophy, particularly Stoicism, pathos takes on a different meaning, referring to "complaints of the soul." Stoics viewed succumbing to pathos as an internal event, an erroneous response to external impressions. They believed that all pathos should be eradicated to achieve a state of apatheia, linking this view to a specific understanding of the soul, psychological functioning, and human action. A key aspect of this perspective is that succumbing to pathos is considered an error of reason, an intellectual mistake. Epicureanism, in contrast, interpreted pathos in more colloquial terms, associating it with pleasure and analyzing emotional specificity in relation to an individual's experience of pleasure.Modern philosophers have often been more skeptical of the role of emotions in communication. Political theorists like John Locke, for instance, aimed to remove emotion entirely from reasoned communication. However, the concept of pathos continues to be relevant in contemporary contexts, including public relations. "Corporate pathos," for example, is a term used in public relations to describe the employment of emotional engagement techniques to alter adverse public attitudes toward a corporation. This involves using emotional arguments alongside rational explanations to convince audiences of an organization's position, particularly when facing a crisis and an angry public. This demonstrates the enduring power and adaptability of emotional appeal in various forms of communication.
