Self-handicapping is a cognitive strategy that individuals employ to avoid effort, primarily in the hopes of preventing potential failure from damaging their self-esteem. This concept was initially theorized by Edward E. Jones and Steven Berglas, who described self-handicaps as obstacles that individuals either create or claim in anticipation of a poor performance. While often viewed as a method for preserving self-esteem, self-handicapping can also
serve purposes of self-enhancement and managing the perceptions others have of an individual. The preservation or augmentation of self-esteem through this strategy is linked to shifts in causal attributions, or how individuals assign reasons for their successes and failures.
Understanding the Mechanisms of Self-Handicapping
There are two primary methods through which people engage in self-handicapping: behavioral and claimed self-handicaps. Behavioral handicapping involves actively creating obstacles to one's own performance. This means making a task more difficult in advance, so that if failure occurs, the blame can be placed on these external obstacles rather than on a lack of personal ability. Examples of behavioral handicaps include consuming alcohol, setting goals that are practically impossible to achieve, or deliberately refusing to practice a skill, such as in sports or fine arts. Other behaviors that fall under this category include procrastination, self-fulfilling prophecies of negative expectations, learned helplessness, and engaging in risky behaviors or addictions.Claimed self-handicapping, on the other hand, involves merely stating that an obstacle to performance exists, without necessarily creating one. This method focuses on developing justifications for potential failures beforehand. If an individual does not succeed, they can then point to these pre-established excuses as the reasons for their poor performance. A common example of a claimed self-handicap is declaring that one is experiencing physical symptoms, such as feeling unwell, before an important event like an exam. Both behavioral and claimed self-handicaps are employed to protect self-esteem or to reduce and inhibit unpleasant emotions, allowing individuals to externalize failures while internalizing successes.
The Role of Attributions and Self-Perception
Self-handicapping allows individuals to attribute their failures to external factors, thereby protecting their internal sense of competence. Conversely, any success achieved despite these self-imposed or claimed obstacles can be internalized, enhancing the individual's self-image. For instance, a student who spends the night before a crucial exam partying instead of studying is engaging in behavioral self-handicapping. If they fail, they can attribute it to fatigue or a hangover, rather than a lack of ability. If, against the odds, they perform well, their achievement is seen as even more impressive because they succeeded despite the handicap.This mechanism helps maintain public and private self-images of competence. Individuals who exhibit unstable self-esteem are often more prone to self-handicapping behaviors, as it provides a way to externalize failure and internalize success through their actions or choices in performance settings. The goal is to shift blame away from personal ability. This contrasts with Festinger's social comparison theory, which suggests a fundamental human motive to seek information and feedback about capabilities. However, self-handicapping aligns more closely with Covington's Self-Worth Theory, which posits that individuals' self-worth is tied to perceived performance and abilities. In this view, effort can be a "double-edged sword," as making an effort that results in failure can lead to feelings of humiliation or shame, making self-handicapping a protective last resort.
Widespread Occurrence and Motivational Factors
Self-handicapping is a widespread human behavior observed across various cultures and geographic regions. It can manifest in diverse environments where performance is expected, from academic settings to the business world. Students, for example, frequently self-handicap to avoid negative feelings if they perform poorly in class. The effects of self-handicapping can range from minor to significant. Research indicates that self-handicapping is often motivated by uncertainty about one's abilities or by anticipated threats to self-esteem. While self-presentational concerns can exacerbate self-handicapping, it can also occur in situations where such concerns are minimal.Fear of failure, coupled with a heightened sensitivity to shame and embarrassment, is a significant motivator for self-handicapping. Students who fear failure may adopt performance goals focused on demonstrating competence or avoiding the appearance of incompetence. For example, a student might aim to avoid performing poorly on an exam to prevent the implication of a lack of ability. To sidestep ability attributions and the shame of failure, this student might intentionally fail to prepare adequately for the exam. While this offers temporary relief, it can lead to greater uncertainty about one's abilities and a cycle of further self-handicapping.
