The 1860 United States presidential election was a pivotal moment in American history, deeply marked by political divisions that foreshadowed the impending Civil War. Held on November 6, 1860, the election saw the Republican ticket of Abraham Lincoln and Hannibal Hamlin emerge victorious. However, this outcome was not universally accepted, particularly in the Southern states, where threats of secession had been a significant undercurrent throughout
the campaign. The election highlighted the stark ideological differences across the nation, especially concerning the institution of slavery and states' rights, ultimately pushing the country closer to disunion.
Secession Warnings and Political Maneuvering
During the campaigning, both John Bell of the Constitutional Union Party and Stephen A. Douglas, the Northern Democratic nominee, attempted to downplay the likelihood of disunion following a Lincoln victory. Despite their assurances, military officers in states like Virginia, Kansas, and South Carolina were already sending warnings to Lincoln about military preparations being made in anticipation of secession. This suggests a clear disconnect between the public rhetoric of some candidates and the serious actions being taken on the ground by those preparing for a potential conflict.
Secessionists actively supported John C. Breckinridge, the Southern Democratic candidate, with a strategic goal in mind. Their aim was either to compel the anti-Republican candidates to coordinate their electoral votes, thereby preventing a Lincoln majority, or to force the election into the House of Representatives. In the House, the selection of the president would have been made by representatives elected in 1858, before the Republican majorities achieved in both the House and Senate in 1860 were seated in the new 37th Congress. This maneuver underscores the desperate political calculations being made to prevent a Republican presidency.
Southern Voting Patterns and Regional Divides
Despite the common perception of a monolithic South united against Lincoln, voting patterns reveal a more complex picture. The South was economically, culturally, and politically diverse, comprising three distinct regions. In the Upper South, also known as the Border South (Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri), unionist popular votes were distributed among Lincoln, Douglas, and Bell, forming a majority in all four states. This indicates a significant portion of the population in these states still favored remaining in the Union.
The Middle South states also showed a divided unionist sentiment. In Virginia and Tennessee, a unionist majority was split between Douglas and Bell. North Carolina and Arkansas also saw the combined unionist vote for Bell and Douglas approach a majority. Even in three of the seven Deep South states, unionists (Bell and Douglas) secured divided majorities in Georgia and Louisiana, and nearly achieved one in Alabama. Breckinridge only convincingly carried four of the seven Deep South states: South Carolina, Florida, Mississippi, and Texas. These Deep South states were characterized by having the largest enslaved populations and, consequently, the smallest enfranchised free white populations, which influenced their political leanings.
Lincoln's Limited Presence in the South
Abraham Lincoln's presence on the ballot and his vote count in the Southern states were extremely limited. In the eleven states that would later declare secession and be controlled by Confederate armies, ballots for Lincoln were cast only in Virginia. Even there, he received a mere 1,929 votes, accounting for just 1.15 percent of the total. The vast majority of these votes, 1,832, came from the border counties of what would soon become West Virginia, a region that felt alienated from Richmond and had strong economic and cultural ties to Ohio and Pennsylvania.
Lincoln received no votes at all in 121 of Virginia's 145 counties at the time, and in some counties where he did poll votes, he received ten or fewer. His best results were in the state's northern panhandle, particularly Hancock County, where he polled over 40% of the vote and finished in second place. The absence of Lincoln's votes in ten Southern states was not due to his removal from the ballot, but rather the Republican Party's lack of organization in those states. In that era, parties, not states, printed ballots, and no citizen in these states would publicly pledge to vote for Lincoln, making it practically impossible for voters to support him through legal means. This stark regional divide in voting and party organization underscored the deep chasm that had opened up in American politics.
