Alice Paul's journey as a women's suffrage advocate was profoundly shaped by her experiences in England, where she learned and honed militant tactics of civil disobedience. These methods, including hunger strikes and demanding political prisoner status, were then brought back to the United States, significantly influencing the American suffrage movement. Her willingness to endure harsh treatment and imprisonment for the cause became a powerful tool
in drawing public attention and pressure, ultimately contributing to the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment.
Learning Civil Disobedience in Britain
While associated with the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) in England, Alice Paul was arrested a total of seven times and imprisoned three times. It was during these incarcerations that she learned the tactics of civil disobedience from Emmeline Pankhurst. A key tactic was demanding to be treated as a political prisoner upon arrest. This demand served a dual purpose: it sent a message to the public about the legitimacy of the suffragists' cause and offered potential tangible benefits. In many European countries, including England, political prisoners were granted special status, meaning they were not searched upon arrest, not housed with the general prisoner population, not required to wear prison garb, and not force-fed if they engaged in hunger strikes. Although arrested suffragists were often denied this status, their insistence on it generated significant press coverage for the WSPU.
One notable instance occurred during a London arrest when Paul, after being denied political prisoner status, refused to wear prison clothing. When prison matrons could not forcibly undress her, they requested assistance from male guards. This act, considered shockingly improper by Victorian standards, provided extensive press coverage for the suffrage movement, highlighting the extreme measures taken against women fighting for the vote. Paul's experiences in England, including her arrests and the public's reaction, solidified her belief in the power of direct action and public spectacle to advance the cause of women's rights.
The Power of Hunger Strikes and Force-Feeding
Hunger striking was another popular civil disobedience tactic employed by suffragists. The first WSPU-related hunger strike was conducted by sculptor Marion Wallace Dunlop in June 1909, and by that fall, it was widely adopted by WSPU members due to its effectiveness in publicizing their mistreatment and securing quick release from prison wardens. Paul herself experienced the effectiveness of hunger strikes, as refusing food led to early release during her first two arrests in England. However, during her third prison stint, the warden ordered twice-daily force-feeding to ensure she remained strong enough to complete her month-long sentence.
Paul and other women described the force-feeding process as torturous, despite prison authorities maintaining it was for their benefit. After a month in prison, Paul developed severe gastritis and had to be carried out, immediately attended by a doctor. This ordeal left her health permanently scarred, leading to frequent colds and flu that sometimes required hospitalization. These severe personal consequences did not deter her. Upon her return to the United States in January 1910, Paul's well-publicized experiences in England, including the hunger strikes and force-feeding, garnered significant media attention and influenced her approach to the American suffrage movement. She decided to embrace a single goal: the recognition of women as equal citizens, believing that such radical actions were necessary to achieve it.
Applying Militancy in the United States
In the United States, Paul and the National Woman's Party (NWP) adopted similar confrontational tactics. After the U.S. entered World War I in April 1917, many viewed the picketing Silent Sentinels as disloyal. Paul ensured the picketing continued, leading to arrests for "obstructing traffic" in June 1917. Over the next six months, many suffragists, including Paul, were convicted and incarcerated at the Occoquan Workhouse in Virginia and the District of Columbia Jail. The women were given no special treatment as political prisoners, enduring harsh conditions with poor sanitation, infested food, and dreadful facilities.
In protest of these conditions at the District Jail, Paul initiated a hunger strike. This led to her being moved to the prison's psychiatric ward and force-fed raw eggs through a feeding tube. Paul later reflected on this, stating, "It was shocking that a government of men could look with such extreme contempt on a movement that was asking nothing except such a simple little thing as the right to vote." Despite the brutality she experienced and witnessed, Paul remained undaunted. The public outcry over the treatment of these suffragists, particularly during the "Night of Terror" on November 14, 1917, when imprisoned suffragists at Occoquan endured brutality, ultimately pressured President Wilson. Within two months of the suffragists' release, Wilson announced a bill supporting women's right to vote, demonstrating the profound impact of Paul's militant strategies.
