Buddhist meditation, a practice central to the tradition, has deep historical roots that extend into pre-Buddhist India. Modern scholarship, particularly in Buddhist studies, has sought to reconstruct the early meditation practices primarily through philological and text-critical analyses of early canonical texts. This research reveals that the teachings of the Buddha, as presented in these early canons, contain a degree of complexity and even contradiction.
These variations suggest that early Buddhism was influenced by non-Buddhist traditions, incorporating diverse methods that did not always align perfectly. Understanding these historical influences is crucial for appreciating the evolution of Buddhist meditative practices.
Early Contradictions and Non-Buddhist Influences
Indologist Johannes Bronkhorst highlights that the early Buddhist canon presents a variety of methods that do not always agree with each other, and includes views and practices that are sometimes accepted and sometimes rejected. These contradictions are attributed to the influence of non-Buddhist traditions on early Buddhism. For instance, the Vitakkasanthāna Sutta of the Majjhima Nikāya, along with its parallels in Chinese translation, advises a practicing monk to 'restrain his thought with his mind, to coerce and torment it.' Interestingly, the same words are used elsewhere in the Pāli canon, specifically in the Mahāsaccaka Sutta, Bodhirājakumāra Sutta, and Saṅgārava Sutta, to describe the Buddha's own futile attempts to achieve liberation before his enlightenment, efforts that mirrored the practices of the Jainas.
Bronkhorst argues that such practices, which are based on a
