Buddhist meditation is often characterized by two fundamental practices: samatha, meaning calming or tranquil abiding, and vipassanā, which refers to insight or clear seeing. These two concepts are not merely techniques but represent distinct yet often intertwined paths to spiritual development within various Buddhist traditions. While their precise relationship and sequence of practice have been subjects of scholarly discussion and traditional interpretation,
both are universally recognized as crucial for cultivating concentration and understanding. The way these practices are understood and integrated varies significantly across different schools of Buddhism, from early Indian traditions to later Mahayana scholasticism.
Northern Indian Traditions and the Foundations of Insight
In the Northern Indian Buddhist traditions, such as the Sarvastivada and the Sautrāntika schools, meditation practices were systematically outlined in significant texts like the Abhidharmakośakārikā by Vasubandhu and the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra. According to the Abhidharmakośakārikā, the practice of vipassana is undertaken once a practitioner has achieved samādhi, a state of absorption or deep concentration. This insight practice involves cultivating the four foundations of mindfulness (smṛtyupasthāna).
Vasubandhu further elaborates that this cultivation is achieved by considering both the unique characteristics (svālakṣaṇa) and the general characteristics (sāmānyalakṣaṇā) of phenomena, specifically focusing on the body, sensation, the mind, and dharmas. The "unique characteristics" refer to the inherent self-nature of things, while the "general characteristics" encompass the universal truths that "All conditioned things are impermanent; all impure dharmas are suffering; and that all the dharmas are empty (śūnya) and not-self (anātmaka)." This systematic approach highlights how samatha provides the stable ground from which vipassanā can effectively penetrate the nature of reality.
Mahayana Perspectives on Samatha-Vipassanā
The later Indian Mahayana scholastic tradition, exemplified by works such as Shantideva's Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra, also viewed śamatha as a necessary prerequisite for vipaśyanā. This perspective suggests a sequential approach where one must first establish calm abiding meditation before proceeding to cultivate insight. The Pañjikā commentary by Prajñākaramati on the Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra defines vipaśyanā simply as "wisdom (prajñā) that has the nature of thorough knowledge of reality as it is." This emphasizes the cognitive and wisdom-generating aspect of insight.
Several Mahayana sūtras address śamatha, often in conjunction with vipaśyanā. The Cloud of Jewels Sutra (Ārya Ratnamegha Sutra) categorizes all forms of meditation into either śamatha or vipaśyanā, defining śamatha as "single-pointed consciousness" and vipaśyanā as "seeing into the nature of things." The Sūtra Unlocking the Mysteries (Samdhinirmocana Sūtra), a Yogācāra sūtra, is also frequently referenced for teachings on śamatha. While the Samādhirāja Sūtra is cited by the Kagyu tradition as an important source for śamatha instructions, particularly through Gampopa's commentary, scholar Andrew Skilton notes that the sūtra itself does not contain a significant exposition of meditational practices or states of mind, indicating that interpretations and commentaries play a crucial role in shaping practice.
The Emphasis on Prajñā and Śūnyatā in Mahayana Vipassanā
Within the Mahayana tradition, vipassanā is strongly associated with prajñā, which is insight into śūnyatā (emptiness), dharmatā (the true nature of phenomena), the two truths doctrine, clarity and emptiness, or bliss and emptiness. The very title of a large body of early Mahayana literature, the Prajñāpāramitā, underscores the emphasis on insight, or prajñā, sometimes even at the expense of dispassion (virāga) or the control of emotions. The Mahayana Akṣayamati-nirdeśa describes vipaśyanā as seeing phenomena as they truly are: empty, without self, non-arisen, and without grasping.
The Prajñāpāramitā sūtra in 8,000 lines further illustrates this by stating that the practice of insight involves the non-appropriation of any dharmas, including the five aggregates (form, feeling, perception, impulse, and consciousness). A Bodhisattva practicing perfect wisdom neither stands in nor appropriates these aggregates. This concentrated insight is termed "the non-appropriation of all dharmas." Despite the common understanding of Theravāda and Mahayana as distinct streams of Buddhism, their shared emphasis on insight serves as a common denominator. For instance, Zen, while influenced by Taoism and Confucianism, is considered very close to the Theravāda Forest Tradition in its practice and understanding, highlighting the enduring importance of insight across diverse Buddhist schools.
