Why Pale Skin Was Considered a Sign of Wealth in Ancient Rome

Cosmetics were an integral part of daily life in ancient Rome, initially serving ritualistic purposes before becoming commonplace. The desire for beauty products was so strong that some imported items, particularly those from Germany, Gaul, and China, were exceedingly expensive. This led to attempts by the Lex Oppia in 189 BCE to limit their use. The market for these fashionable "designer brands" also spurred the creation of cheaper imitations, making

cosmetics accessible to poorer women, though they might have lacked the time or enslaved people to apply them. The application of makeup was a time-consuming process, often requiring multiple reapplications throughout the day due to weather conditions and the poor composition of the products.

The Private Ritual of Roman Beauty

Cosmetics were typically applied in private settings, often in small rooms where men were not permitted. Female enslaved people, known as *cosmetae*, were highly valued for their skill in adorning their mistresses with *cultus*, a Latin term encompassing makeup, perfume, and jewelry. Scent played a crucial role in Roman beauty standards; women who smelled pleasant were often presumed to be healthy. Given the often unpleasant odors of many cosmetic ingredients, women frequently used generous amounts of perfume to mask these smells. While Christian women generally avoided cosmetics, believing they should honor their natural appearance, some men, particularly cross-dressers, did use them, though this was often seen as effeminate and improper. Interestingly, many cosmetic ingredients also served medicinal purposes, despite the known toxicity of some, like lead, which was widely used.

Roman attitudes toward cosmetics evolved as the empire expanded, bringing increased wealth and a wider array of products. Influences from conquered peoples, especially the Greeks and Egyptians, significantly shaped Roman beauty ideals. However, Romans generally favored the "preservation of beauty" over "unnatural embellishment." Despite exaggerating makeup for visibility in poor lighting, women aimed for a natural look to signify chastity. Artificiality was often associated with seduction, leading men to question a woman's motives for appearing attractive. Unnatural eye colors and overlined eyes were particularly disliked, contributing to the male perception of cosmetics as deceitful. Vestal Virgins, for instance, abstained from makeup to maintain an appearance of holiness and chastity, with one, Postumia, facing accusations of *incestum* for defying this norm.

Skincare and the Pursuit of Pale Skin

Pure white skin was considered the most crucial feature of Roman female beauty, signifying aristocracy and high social status. Pale skin suggested that a woman remained indoors, implying she could afford enslaved people to perform outdoor labor. Women often prepared their faces with beauty masks before applying makeup. Recipes included applying sweat from sheep's wool (lanolin) before bed, a practice often criticized by men for its stench. Other ingredients for skincare included juice, seeds, horns, excrement, honey, plants, placenta, marrow, vinegar, bile, animal urine, sulfur, eggs, myrrh, incense, frankincense, ground oyster shells, onions with poultry fat, white lead, and barley with vetch. Wealthy women like Cleopatra VII and Poppaea Sabina even bathed in donkey milk for its exfoliating lactic acid. After bathing, they would apply face whiteners such as chalk powder, white marl, crocodile dung, and white lead, underscoring the importance of white skin despite the known dangers of lead.

Romans also sought to address wrinkles, freckles, sunspots, skin flakes, and blemishes. Swans’ fat, asses’ milk, gum Arabic, and bean-meal were used to soften wrinkles. Snail ashes treated sores and freckles. Soft leather patches of alum, in round or crescent shapes, were pasted over blemishes, sometimes by criminals and freedmen to conceal brand marks. Hair removal was also common, as hair on the body (excluding the head) was deemed unattractive. Women used shaving, plucking, resin paste, or pumice stones for depilation, though older women faced ridicule for this practice, as it was primarily associated with preparation for sex.

Eye Makeup and Other Adornments

Roman eye makeup involved diverse materials and tools, serving decorative, ritualistic, and medicinal purposes. Eyeliner and eyebrow darkeners were common, often using *stibium* (kohl), a substance with varied chemical compositions that included fine powders, sticks, stones, cakes, and pastes. Kohl was applied to eyelids and eyebrows with slender applicators made of wood, glass, bone, or ivory, often moistened with water or perfumed oil. Scientific analysis has revealed organic materials like resins, plant extracts, leaves, and seeds in kohl recipes, suggesting its multifaceted significance. Cylindrical kohl containers, sometimes with multiple compartments for different pigments like black and green, were frequently found in graves, indicating funerary significance.

Class distinctions influenced cosmetic choices; wealthier women used expensive minerals like antimony and galena, while lower-class women often used soot from oil lamps. Saffron was also used as an eyeliner by elite women. Roman beauty ideals favored large, expressive eyes with long lashes and dark eyebrows that nearly met. Pliny the Elder believed thick eyelashes signified chastity. Despite male authors' disdain for cosmetics, Ovid offered a more accepting view, endorsing *stibium* for shading eyes and recommending filling in sparse eyebrows. Beyond the eyes, a light pink on the cheeks, signifying good health, was achieved with sources like Tyrian vermillion, rose and poppy petals, red chalk, and crocodile dung. Cinnabar and red lead were used despite their toxicity. While lipstick evidence is scarce for Romans, they did use a red dye from an Indian insect for nails. White teeth were prized, leading to the use of false teeth made from bone, ivory, and paste, and breath was sweetened with powder and baking soda.