Emotions are not merely internal states; they are profoundly social phenomena, deeply intertwined with human culture, interactions, and societal structures. From the ways we express feelings to the rules governing their display, emotions play a critical role in shaping our social lives. This social dimension means that emotions are not universally experienced or expressed in the same way, but are instead molded by cultural norms, influence our relationships,
and are often subject to conscious or unconscious regulation.
Sociology, anthropology, and communication studies all examine the role of emotion in human society. In sociology, emotions are conceptualized through multidimensional characteristics, including cultural or emotional labels (like anger or happiness), physiological changes, expressive body movements, and appraisals of situational cues. Sociologist Peggy Thoits, for instance, described emotions as involving physiological components, cultural labels, expressive body actions, and the appraisal of situations and contexts. This highlights how our understanding and experience of emotion are filtered through a social lens.
Cultural Variations and Social Construction
Cross-cultural studies indicate that the categorization of "emotion" and the classification of basic emotions like "anger" and "sadness" are not universal. The boundaries and domains of these concepts can differ significantly across cultures. Lisa Feldman Barrett emphasizes these differences, arguing that emotions are socially constructed. She states that emotions "are not triggered; you create them. They emerge as a combination of the physical properties of your body, a flexible brain that wires itself to whatever environment it develops in, and your culture and upbringing, which provide that environment." This "theory of constructed emotion" suggests that our emotional experiences are deeply shaped by our cultural context.
Cultural norms also dictate how emotions are expressed and perceived. For example, the expression of anger is often discouraged in girls and women more than in boys and men in many cultures, with an angry man's complaint potentially seen as valid, while an angry woman might be labeled hysterical. Conversely, the expression of sadness or fear is often discouraged in boys and men relative to girls and women, reflected in phrases like "man up." These expectations, attached to social roles and accompanying "feeling rules," contribute to differences in emotional expression. Some cultures encourage or discourage happiness, sadness, or jealousy, and the free expression of disgust is generally considered socially unacceptable in most cultures.
Emotions in Social Interactions and Regulation
Emotions motivate social interactions and relationships, directly linking them to basic physiology, particularly stress systems. They are related to the anti-stress complex and the oxytocin-attachment system, which plays a major role in bonding. Emotional phenotype temperaments affect social connectedness and fitness in complex social systems. Sociologist Jonathan Turner's theory of emotional arousal suggests that emotions arise from expectation states and sanctions. When expectations for self, others, or a situation are met or unmet, different emotions are experienced. People also provide positive or negative sanctions that trigger emotional experiences.
Emotion regulation refers to the cognitive and behavioral strategies people use to influence their own emotional experience. This can involve behavioral strategies like avoiding a situation to prevent unwanted emotions, or cognitive strategies like trying not to think about a distressing situation. Psychotherapy approaches emotion regulation differently depending on their focus—cognitively oriented schools address emotions via their cognitive components, while others focus on symbolic movement and facial expression. The continuous attempts to regulate emotion according to societal conventions and situational demands underscore the powerful influence of social context on our emotional lives. This regulation is driven by many, sometimes conflicting, demands and expectations originating from various entities, highlighting the complex interplay between individual feelings and collective norms.
