A New Recipe for Spaceflight
Traditionally, NASA designed, built, and operated its own spacecraft. For the Apollo missions, NASA controlled nearly every bolt. This was a “cost-plus” model, where the government paid for the costs of development and production, plus a fee. The new
approach, refined in the Commercial Crew Program that now sends astronauts to the International Space Station, is fundamentally different. NASA acts more like a customer and safety overseer. The agency sets strict safety and performance requirements but buys a service—in this case, transportation—from private companies like SpaceX and Boeing. This is often done via fixed-price contracts, which incentivizes companies to control costs and innovate efficiently because they have to deliver within a set budget. This model is now being extended for the ambitious Artemis program, which aims to return humans to the Moon and then go on to Mars.
Dividing the Financial Risk
In this public-private model, financial risk is shared, but in a structured way. NASA provides seed funding and milestone-based payments, which means companies receive funds as they successfully complete specific stages of development and testing. This reduces the initial financial burden on the companies. However, the companies also invest significant amounts of their own capital. They shoulder the risk of development overruns. If building the rocket costs more than expected, the company, not the taxpayer, often covers the difference under a fixed-price contract. The reward for this risk is that the companies own the intellectual property and the hardware. This allows them to sell flights or services to other customers, creating a commercial market beyond NASA and potentially leading to long-term profitability.
Technical Risks and Innovation
The responsibility for making the technology work—the technical risk—lies heavily with the private company. They design, build, own, and operate the vehicle. This is the core of the partnership: leveraging commercial innovation and agility. NASA contributes its vast technical expertise and access to testing facilities, but it is not dictating the design. This was seen in the development of SpaceX's Crew Dragon and Boeing's Starliner. For Mars, this is even more critical. For instance, NASA recently partnered with Relativity Space for a Mars science mission where NASA provides the scientific instruments, but Relativity is responsible for the rocket, spacecraft, and flight operations to get them there. This allows NASA to focus its resources on the science, while the company handles the delivery service.
The Ultimate Responsibility: Human Life
When it comes to human life, the ultimate responsibility remains with NASA. The agency sets incredibly stringent safety requirements and conducts a rigorous certification process before any astronaut boards a private spacecraft. This is not a hands-off approach. NASA engineers are embedded with the companies, reviewing data and overseeing tests to ensure standards are met. The Outer Space Treaty, a foundational piece of international law, holds nations responsible for all space activities originating from their country, whether governmental or private. In the event of a catastrophic failure, while the company would face immense financial and reputational damage, the U.S. government, through NASA, would be held accountable on the world stage. Investigations into mission failures are governed by strict NASA procedures, often involving both the agency and the private contractor to determine the root cause and implement corrective actions.
The Mars Equation: Higher Stakes, Greater Unknowns
The journey to Mars amplifies all these factors. A mission is not a few days to low-Earth orbit, but a months-long journey into deep space. The risks are exponentially higher. While the public-private model has proven successful for cargo and crew delivery to the space station, Mars is the ultimate test. The Artemis Accords, an international agreement led by the U.S., helps to establish principles for responsible exploration, including transparency and mutual assistance. However, complex questions about liability in deep space and potential rescue missions for commercial astronauts are still being addressed. As NASA and its partners like SpaceX develop the Starship Human Landing System for lunar missions, they are building the framework and trust needed for the even greater leap to Mars. The risk is shared, but the responsibility for American astronauts remains firmly with NASA.
